Sciences

 Centrifugation: Centrifugation is a mechanical process that uses centrifugal force to separate components of a mixture based on their size, shape, density, medium viscosity, and rotor speed. Principle: The principle behind centrifugation is sedimentation . In a mixture, particles with a higher density tend to settle at the bottom due to gravity.  A centrifuge accelerates this separation by spinning the mixture at high speeds, creating a much stronger "effective gravitational force" known as centrifugal force. Process: The Rotor: The rotor holds the sample containers (e.g., tubes or bottles) in place. Centrifugal Force: As the rotor spins, it generates centrifugal force, an outward push acting radially from the center of rotation. Sedimentation: This force causes denser particles in the mixture to migrate away from the axis of rotation and settle at the bottom of the tube, forming a pellet . Supernatant: The less dense components remain in the liquid above the pellet, wh...

 Composition, structure, and functions of biomolecules: Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are essential biomolecules that play diverse and vital roles in living organisms. They are broadly defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones, or compounds that produce these units upon hydrolysis.  They are primarily composed of three elements: carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) . Structure: Monosaccharides (Simple Sugars): These are the simplest form of carbohydrates and cannot be hydrolyzed into smaller sugar units. They typically contain three to seven carbon atoms. E.g.: Glucose (C6​H12​O6​): A six-carbon sugar (hexose) and an aldose (contains an aldehyde group). Disaccharides: Formed when two monosaccharide units are joined together by a glycosidic bond (a covalent bond formed by a dehydration reaction, where a water molecule is removed). E.g.: Sucrose (table sugar): Glucose + Fructose (α-1,2-glycosidic bond). Oligosaccharides: Comprise a short chain of three to ten monosacchari...

 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723): A Dutch tradesman and scientist who is widely regarded as the "Father of Microbiology."  Unlike the compound microscopes of his time, which suffered from significant optical aberrations, Leeuwenhoek's microscopes were single-lensed, but he ground his own lenses with such precision that they achieved magnifications up to 270x, with remarkably clear and bright images. In 1676, he was the first to see and meticulously describe bacteria, which he called "animalcules" (little animals), from various sources, including pond water and rainwater. He was one of the first to provide an accurate description of red blood cells, contributing to the understanding of blood circulation.  In 1677, he was the first to observe and describe spermatozoa (sperm cells) from various animals, including humans. He provided early observations of blood flowing through capillaries. Joseph Lister (1827-1912): A British surgeon who is widely recognized as ...