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 This blog is started by a student(me) to give information on things that I Know to all who view this blog. I hope it will be helpful for more people and gain basic knowledge on things I post in this blog

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COMPREHENSIVE BIOLOGY

 Composition, structure, and functions of biomolecules: Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are essential biomolecules that play diverse and vital roles in living organisms. They are broadly defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones, or compounds that produce these units upon hydrolysis.  They are primarily composed of three elements: carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) . Structure: Monosaccharides (Simple Sugars): These are the simplest form of carbohydrates and cannot be hydrolyzed into smaller sugar units. They typically contain three to seven carbon atoms. E.g.: Glucose (C6​H12​O6​): A six-carbon sugar (hexose) and an aldose (contains an aldehyde group). Disaccharides: Formed when two monosaccharide units are joined together by a glycosidic bond (a covalent bond formed by a dehydration reaction, where a water molecule is removed). E.g.: Sucrose (table sugar): Glucose + Fructose (α-1,2-glycosidic bond). Oligosaccharides: Comprise a short chain of three to ten monosacchari...
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CENTRIFUGATION AND CHROMTOGRAPHY

 Centrifugation: Centrifugation is a mechanical process that uses centrifugal force to separate components of a mixture based on their size, shape, density, medium viscosity, and rotor speed. Principle: The principle behind centrifugation is sedimentation . In a mixture, particles with a higher density tend to settle at the bottom due to gravity.  A centrifuge accelerates this separation by spinning the mixture at high speeds, creating a much stronger "effective gravitational force" known as centrifugal force. Process: The Rotor: The rotor holds the sample containers (e.g., tubes or bottles) in place. Centrifugal Force: As the rotor spins, it generates centrifugal force, an outward push acting radially from the center of rotation. Sedimentation: This force causes denser particles in the mixture to migrate away from the axis of rotation and settle at the bottom of the tube, forming a pellet . Supernatant: The less dense components remain in the liquid above the pellet, wh...
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DOWNSTREAM PROCESS

 Introduction of downstream processing: Downstream processing (DSP) refers to the series of operations that occur after the production or synthesis of a desired product in a biological system (like a cell culture or fermentation broth). Importance of downstream process: Product Quality: DSP removes impurities like cell debris, proteins, DNA, endotoxins, and other contaminants that could affect the safety and efficacy of the final product. Regulatory Compliance: Stringent regulatory standards require biopharmaceuticals and other biological products to be highly pure and well-characterized. DSP plays a critical role in meeting these standards. Commercialization: DSP transforms a crude mixture into a marketable product with the desired purity, concentration, and formulation.  Steps in process: Solid-Liquid Separation. Product Isolation. Product Purification. Polishing. Formulation. Principles of downstream process: Downstream processing (DSP) is governed by several key prin...
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