Sciences

 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723): A Dutch tradesman and scientist who is widely regarded as the "Father of Microbiology."  Unlike the compound microscopes of his time, which suffered from significant optical aberrations, Leeuwenhoek's microscopes were single-lensed, but he ground his own lenses with such precision that they achieved magnifications up to 270x, with remarkably clear and bright images. In 1676, he was the first to see and meticulously describe bacteria, which he called "animalcules" (little animals), from various sources, including pond water and rainwater. He was one of the first to provide an accurate description of red blood cells, contributing to the understanding of blood circulation.  In 1677, he was the first to observe and describe spermatozoa (sperm cells) from various animals, including humans. He provided early observations of blood flowing through capillaries. Joseph Lister (1827-1912): A British surgeon who is widely recognized as ...

 Pre-17th Century to Late 17th Century: For centuries, people speculated about invisible entities causing disease and decay. Girolamo Fracastoro, an Italian scholar in the mid-1500s, proposed that contagion was an infection passed by "seed-like entities." Robert Hooke (1665): Made the first recorded microscopic observation of the fruiting bodies of molds, describing what he called "cells" in plant tissues. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1670s):  called the "Father of Microbiology," Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch draper, perfected his own simple, single-lens microscopes. He was the first to accurately observe and describe a wide range of microorganisms, which he called "animalcules,".  His meticulous documentation and drawings sent to the British Royal Society provided the first concrete evidence of a microscopic world. Francesco Redi (mid-17th century): Through experiments with decaying meat, he showed that maggots did not spontaneously generate but came from ...

A pharmacopeia is an officially recognized and legally binding compendium of standards, specifications, and quality control tests for medicines, drug substances (active pharmaceutical ingredients - APIs), excipients, and other pharmaceutical articles. It serves as a public standard to ensure the quality, safety, and efficacy of medicinal products. Key aspects: official recognition public standards. General tests and Assays. Reagents and reference standard. Packaging and labeling Quality control. EX: United States Pharmacopeia (USP), British Pharmacopoeia (BP), Indian Pharmacopoeia (IP) and Japanese Pharmacopoeia (JP). Importance of Pharmacopeia: Ensuring Drug Quality. Promoting Public Health. Facilitating Trade. Guiding Manufacturers. Supporting Regulatory Agencies. Providing Information to Healthcare Professionals. Indian Pharmacopeia: The Indian Pharmacopoeia (IP) is the official book of standards for the quality of drugs manufactured and/or marketed in India. It is published by the...

 Introduction of downstream processing: Downstream processing (DSP) refers to the series of operations that occur after the production or synthesis of a desired product in a biological system (like a cell culture or fermentation broth). Importance of downstream process: Product Quality: DSP removes impurities like cell debris, proteins, DNA, endotoxins, and other contaminants that could affect the safety and efficacy of the final product. Regulatory Compliance: Stringent regulatory standards require biopharmaceuticals and other biological products to be highly pure and well-characterized. DSP plays a critical role in meeting these standards. Commercialization: DSP transforms a crude mixture into a marketable product with the desired purity, concentration, and formulation.  Steps in process: Solid-Liquid Separation. Product Isolation. Product Purification. Polishing. Formulation. Principles of downstream process: Downstream processing (DSP) is governed by several key prin...

 Properties of chemotherapeutic agents:  Spectrum of Activity: Broad-spectrum: Effective against a wide range of microorganisms. Narrow-spectrum: Effective against a limited number of microorganisms. 2. Mechanism of Action: Cell wall synthesis inhibition: Disrupting the formation of the microbial cell wall, leading to cell lysis. Protein synthesis inhibition: Interfering with the microbial protein production, halting growth. DNA/RNA synthesis inhibition: Blocking the replication or transcription of microbial genetic material. Metabolic pathway disruption: Interfering with essential metabolic processes in the microorganism. 3. Potency: Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC): The lowest concentration of a chemotherapeutic agent that inhibits the growth of a microorganism. Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC): The lowest concentration of a chemotherapeutic agent that kills the microorganism. 4. Pharmacokinetics: Absorption: How well the chemotherapeutic a...