Introduction of downstream processing:
- Solid-Liquid Separation.
- Product Isolation.
- Product Purification.
- Polishing.
- Formulation.
Principles of downstream process:
- Target Purity: The primary principle is to achieve the desired level of purity for the final product. This depends on the intended use and regulatory requirements.
- Impurity Removal: DSP aims to remove various impurities
- Minimize Losses: Each step in DSP can lead to product loss. The goal is to optimize each step to minimize these losses and maximize the overall yield of the process.
- Efficient Recovery: Techniques should be employed to efficiently recover the product from intermediate streams and waste materials.
3. Process Efficiency and Economics:
- Minimize Steps: A simpler process with fewer steps is generally preferred to reduce costs and potential product losses.
- Optimize Operations: Each unit operation should be optimized for efficiency, including factors like flow rates, temperatures, pH, and time.
4. Process Understanding and Control:
- Critical Process Parameters (CPPs): Identifying and controlling the CPPs that affect product quality and yield is essential.
- Process Monitoring: Real-time monitoring of key parameters helps to ensure process consistency and identify potential issues.
5. Regulatory Compliance:
- Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP): DSP must adhere to GMP regulations to ensure product safety and quality.
- Documentation: Thorough documentation of the process, including validation studies, is required for regulatory submissions.
6. Product Stability:
- Maintain Integrity: DSP should be designed to maintain the structural and functional integrity of the product.
- Prevent Degradation: Conditions that could lead to product degradation (e.g., high temperatures, extreme pH) should be avoided.
7. Environmental Considerations:
- Waste Minimization: DSP processes should be designed to minimize waste generation and environmental impact.
- Sustainable Practices: Exploring sustainable practices, such as using less hazardous chemicals and reducing water consumption, is important.
Characters of biomolecules:
Organic in Nature: Biomolecules are primarily composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. Carbon's unique ability to form diverse and stable bonds with other atoms makes it the backbone of biomolecules.
Diverse Structures and Sizes:
- Biomolecules exhibit a wide range of sizes and structural complexities. They can be small molecules like water and glucose or large macromolecules like proteins and DNA.
- Their three-dimensional structures are crucial for their specific functions.
Functional Groups: Biomolecules contain various functional groups (e.g., hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino, phosphate) that determine their chemical properties and reactivity. These groups participate in specific interactions with other molecules.
Polarity: Biomolecules can be polar or nonpolar, depending on the distribution of electrons within the molecule. This polarity influences their solubility in water and their interactions with other molecules.
Chirality: Many biomolecules, especially those with carbon atoms bonded to four different groups, exhibit chirality (handedness). This chirality is important because biological systems often distinguish between different enantiomers (mirror images) of a molecule.
Interactions:
- Biomolecules interact with each other through various forces, including:
- Covalent bonds: Strong chemical bonds that involve sharing of electrons.
- Ionic bonds: Electrostatic attractions between oppositely charged ions.
- Hydrogen bonds: Weak attractions between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom (like oxygen or nitrogen).
- Hydrophobic interactions: Repulsion of nonpolar molecules from water, leading them to cluster together.
- Van der Waals forces: Weak, short-range attractions between atoms due to temporary fluctuations in electron distribution.
Biological Roles:
- Biomolecules perform a wide array of biological functions, including:
- Structural components: (e.g., proteins in cell membranes, carbohydrates in cell walls)
- Energy storage: (e.g., carbohydrates and lipids)
- Catalysis: (e.g., enzymes that speed up biochemical reactions)
- Information storage and transfer: (e.g., DNA and RNA)
- Signaling: (e.g., hormones and neurotransmitters)
- Transport: (e.g., hemoglobin that carries oxygen in the blood)
Dynamic Nature: Biomolecules are not static; they constantly undergo changes and interactions within cells. These dynamic processes are essential for life.
Self-Assembly: Some biomolecules have the ability to self-assemble into larger structures, like membranes and ribosomes. This self-assembly is driven by non-covalent interactions.
Regulation: The activity and levels of biomolecules are often tightly regulated within cells. This regulation ensures that biological processes occur at the right time and place.
Cell disruption:
Cell disruption is a crucial process in various biological and biotechnological applications. It involves breaking open the cell membrane to release the cell's contents, such as proteins, nucleic acids, and other biomolecules.
Methods of Cell Disruption:
- Mechanical Method.
- Non mechanical method.
- Enzymatic method.
- Chemical method.
Homogenization: Cells are forced through a narrow space at high pressure, causing them to shear and rupture. This is suitable for large-scale processing but can also generate heat.
Sonication: Cells are exposed to high-frequency sound waves, creating cavitation bubbles that implode and disrupt the cells. This is useful for small samples but can generate heat and damage some molecules.
French Press: Cells are passed through a narrow valve at high pressure, causing them to rupture. This is effective for tough cell walls but can be less efficient for large volumes.
Non mechanical method:
Enzymatic Lysis: Enzymes are used to break down the cell wall or membrane. This is gentle and specific but may not be suitable for all cell types.
Chemical Lysis: Detergents or other chemicals are used to disrupt the cell membrane. This is simple and cost-effective but may not be compatible with all downstream applications.
Osmotic Lysis: Cells are placed in a hypotonic solution, causing them to swell and burst. This is gentle but may not be effective for all cell types.
Freeze-Thaw: Cells are repeatedly frozen and thawed, causing ice crystals to form and disrupt the cell membrane. This is simple but can damage some molecules.
Enzymatic method:
Enzymatic cell disruption is a technique that utilizes enzymes to break down the cell wall or membrane, releasing the cell's contents
- Targeted Enzymes: Specific enzymes are chosen based on the type of cell and the components of its cell wall or membrane.
- Enzyme Action: The enzymes catalyze the breakdown of specific bonds in the cell wall or membrane, weakening its structure.
- Cell Lysis: As the structure weakens, the cell eventually lyses, releasing its contents into the surrounding medium.
Different chemicals have different mechanisms of action:
- Detergents: These amphipathic molecules interact with the lipids and proteins in the cell membrane, disrupting its structure and causing it to dissolve.
- Organic solvents: These can penetrate the cell membrane and disrupt its structure, leading to cell lysis.
- Chelating agents: These bind to metal ions that are essential for maintaining the cell membrane's integrity, leading to its breakdown.
- Acids and bases: Extreme pH can disrupt the cell membrane and cause cell lysis.
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